Anglo

Anglo Although, it now became a commonplace practice among particularly ‘progressive’ social activists to blame Western civilization on account of its environmental unfriendliness, the objective analysis points out to the fact that it is namely in Western societies, where people have traditionally been concerned with trying to preserve nature. The soundness of this suggestion can be well illustrated even today.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Anglo-Germanic Writers’ Influence on Popular Environmental Thinking specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For example; whereas, in Nigeria it is being considered absolutely normal by the residents of country’s even biggest cities to dump garbage onto the street, right in front of their shabby houses1, in such Western countries as Britain, Sweden and Germany, one may very well end up facing administrative charges for even as little as throwing a cigarette butt anywhere else but into specially designed garbage bins. And, the reason why, as compared to the people from Third World countries, Westerners appear to grow ever more environmentally aware is simple. As history indicates, the more a particular society is being affected by scientific progress, the less its members require natural resources to sustain their physical existence, which in its turn creates objective preconditions for them to consider adopting friendly stance towards the nature. In other words, the notions of environmental friendliness and scientific progress are very much.2 This is precisely the reason why it is specifically Anglo-Saxon societies, which have traditionally been considered the most technologically advanced, that continue to feature world’s highest environmental standards. In our paper, we will aim to substantiate the full soundness of this suggestion by exploring how creative writings and visual artworks from Anglo/Germanic authors, concerned w ith popularizing the objective essence of natural laws, contributed towards increasing the extent of public’s environmental awareness in 19th and 20th centuries. When we assess the qualitative subtleties of Western civilization’s socio-cultural and scientific progress, from the time of antiquity until today, a very striking picture will emerge – the pace of this progress appears to have been gaining exponential momentum during the time of antiquity (5th century B.C. 5th century A.D.) and during the time of comparatively modern era (15th-20th centuries). However, during the course of so-called Dark Ages (6th – 14th centuries), the pace of Western socio-cultural and scientific progress came to virtually a complete stall – all thanks to Catholic Christianity.3 Therefore, it comes as not a particular surprise that it was specifically the exposure of Biblical fables’ anti-scientific essence, on the part of European most prominent intellectuals, which created the initial preconditions for Western civilization to be set back on its natural track of development.4 And, there can be very little doubt that Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802) was one of these intellectuals. In his poetical work The Botanic Garden; a Poem in Two Parts, supplemented by scientific commentaries, Darwin went about promoting a revolutionary idea that people and plants are being subjected to the same laws of nature.Advertising Looking for research paper on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In its turn, this implied plants’ sexuality: â€Å"The first buds of tree raised from seed die annually and are succeeded by new buds by solitary reproduction; which are larger or more perfect for several suc ­cessive years, and then they produce sexual flowers, which are succeeded by seminal repro ­duction†.5 Nevertheless, it were not the explicit references to the very n otion of sexuality, quite unconventional for its time, which ensured Darwin poem’s progressive sounding, but the fact that this poem suggested the physiological origins of a number of purely metaphysical notions, such as ‘soul’. As a result, Darwin’s poem ended up promoting clearly positivist message that it is the existence that defines consciousnesses, and not the other way around. As it was noted by Reed: â€Å"If life, mind, and feeling are concomitants of the arrangement of organs and of a fluid ether in animal bodies, what role was left for either God or the soul? Erasmus Darwin†¦ argued that the way we act is a function of our upbringing- of social, not divine intervention†.6 It goes without saying, of course, that such Darwin’s botanical stance was wholly inconsistent with the very spirit of anthropocentrism, based upon Judeo-Christian tradition, which contributed rather substantially to poem’s scientific value. After all, even during the course of 18th century, Church continued to exert a strong influence onto the essence of socio-political dynamics in British society. And yet, Darwin proved himself intellectually honest and courageous enough to utilize his poetic talent for the purposes of enlightenment, while defying the conventions of anthropocentrism. What is particularly interesting, in this respect, is the fact that he went about accomplishing it by the mean of endowing plants with clearly anthropocentric psychological traits – whatever the ironic it might sound. In The Botanic Garden; a Poem in Two Parts, flowers are being represented as such that can experience a variety of different emotions: Whilst erythrina oer her tender flowerAdvertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Anglo-Germanic Writers’ Influence on Popular Environmental Thinking specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Bends all her leaves, and braves the sul try hour;- Shield, when cold hesper sheds his dewy light, Mimosa’s soft sensations from the night.7 Thus, even though in Darwin’s poem, plants can be formally referred to as God’s creations, under no circumstances can they be referred to as some sort of God’s commodity. Just as it is being the case with people, in this poem, plants appear to have a life of their own. And, even though The Botanic Garden; a Poem in Two Parts is not being concerned with promotion of the concept of evolution, by being exposed to plants’ sexuality, readers come to suspect the existence of dialectically predetermined links between flora and fauna. Thus, it will not be much of an exaggeration, on our part, to suggest that Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution partially derives out of his grandfather’s insights, in regards to biological commonality between just about all life-forms. The irony lies in the fact that both: Erasmus and Charles’s insightful ness in the matters of biology appears to be of essentially Lamarckian nature. As Barlow had put it: â€Å"Erasmus’s cast of mind appears to hold special heritable qualities When we examine the achievements and characteristics of his (Charles Darwin’s) forbears and descendants, the copious mind of Erasmus appears as a vast family aggregate†.8Advertising Looking for research paper on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Apparently, the example of Erasmus Darwin shows that in 18th century, the sheer vibrancy of the process of Western empirical sciences freeing themselves out of Christian imprisonment had put era’s most prominent intellectuals at liberty to utilize just about any creative techniques, while popularizing scientific notions. The legitimacy of an earlier suggestion can be also explored in regards to one of 19th century’s most famous ornithologists John Gould (1804 – 1881). Just as it used to be the case with many intellectually advanced enthusiasts of science at the time, Gould took an interest in a number of scientific pursuits. Contemporaries considered Gould a professional in the fields of taxidermy, gardening, naval navigation and zoology.  Nevertheless, it was namely his love of birds, which did not only allow Gould to ensure its fame as ornithologist but also to contribute to the process of Charles Darwin designing the concept of natural selection. According to Pycior: â€Å"Darwin has been described as being ‘frankly stunned’ by Gould’s telling him that the Galapagos finches were a peculiar group of thirteen species, all closely related to one South American finch, that Galapagos mockingbirds belonged to three distinct species from different islands, and that twenty’, Current Anthropology, 26/4 (1985), 503. 2 Joel Mokyr, ‘Technological Progress and the Decline of European Mortality’, The American Economic Review, 83/2 (1993), 325. 3 Andrew Keitt, ‘Religious Enthusiasm, the Spanish Inquisition, and the Disenchantment of the World’,  Journal of the History of Ideas, 65/2 (2004), 233. 4 Arthur Melzer, ‘The Origin of the Counter-Enlightenment: Rousseau and the New Religion of Sincerity’, The American Political Science Review, 90/2 (1996), 350. 5 E. Darwin, Botanic Garden, a Poem, in Two Parts; Containing the Economy of Vegetation and The Loves of Plants, with Philosophica l Notes (London: Jones Company, 1825), 23. 6 E. Reed, From Soul to Mind: The Emergence of Psychology from Erasmus Darwin to William James (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 15. 7 Darwin. Op. Cit. 66. 8 Nora Barlow, ‘Erasmus Darwin, F.R.S. (1731-1802)’, Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, 14/1 (1959), 85. 9 H. Pycior, Creative Couples in the Sciences (New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 89. 10 J. Gould, The Birds of Australia: in Seven Volumes (London: Richard and John Taylor, 1848), 28. http://nla.gov.au/nla.aus-f4773-1. 11 S. Gliboff, H.G. Bronn, Ernst Haeckel, and the Origins of German Darwinism: a Study in Translation and Transformation (Cambridge: Mass MIT Press, 2008), 156. 12 Niles Holt, ‘Ernst Haeckels Monistic Religion’, Journal of the History of Ideas, 32/2 (1971), 270. 13 Max Rieser, ‘Three Principles of Natural Beauty’, The Journal of Philosophy, 53/11 (1956), 355. 14 Harold McWhinnie, ‘A Biological Basis for the Golden Section in Art and Design’, Leonardo, 22/1 (1989), 61. 15 Reiser, Op. Cit. 356. 16 Nicholas Kyriazis, ‘Seapower and Socioeconomic Change’, Theory and Society, 35/1 (2006), 75. 17 A. Humboldt. Aspects of Nature in Different Lands and Different Climates; with Scientific Elucidations (London: Longman, Brown, Green Longmans, 1849), ix. archive.org/stream/aspectsofnaturei01humbuoft#page/viii/mode/2up. 18 Aaron Sachs, ‘The Ultimate ‘Other’: Post-Colonialism and Alexander Von Humboldts Ecological Relationship with Nature’, History and Theory, 42/4 (2003), 119. 19 C. Rourke J. MacDonald, Audubon (New York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1936), 284. 20 P. Murphy,T. Gifford K. Yamazato, Literature of Nature: An International Sourcebook (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1998), 172. 21 R. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), 3. 22 R. Dawkins. The Blind Watchmaker (London: Longmans, 1986), 13. 2 3 C. Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1859]1996), 70. 24 R. Dawkins, The God Delusion (London: Bantam Press, 2006), 79. 25 F. Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra: A Book for All and None (New York: Algora Publishing, [1891] 2003), 75. 26 K.. Dobbelaere, Secularization: An Analysis at Three Levels (Berlin: Peter Lang, 2004), 167. 27 Christopher Hoag, ‘The Atlantic Telegraph Cable and Capital Market Information Flows’, The Journal of Economic History 66/2 (2006), 350. 28 H. Thoreau, On the Duty of Civil Disobedience, FeedBooks.Com [web page] (2007) http:// generation.feedbooks.com/book/219.pdf. 29 R. Lynn T. Vanhanen, IQ and the Wealth of Nations (Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002), 63. 30 John Leighly, ‘John Muirs Image of the West’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 48/4 (1958), 312. 31 J. Muir. A Thousand- Mile Walk to the Gulf (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916), 139. 32 J. Burroughs. The Gospel of Nature, ReadBookOnline.Net [web page] (2011) readbookonline.net/readOnLine/21513/. 33 Ibid., 2011.

What Recruiters See On Your Resume The Good, the Bad, and the Unexpected

What Recruiters See On Your Resume The Good, the Bad, and the Unexpected According to Ambra Benjamin, an engineering recruiter answering questions over at Quora.com, every recruiter reviews applications differently. However, it may help you polish up the latest version of your resume to know the highlights at least one executive-level recruiter looks for! Dauntingly, all of these categories are mentally checked off by recruiters in about 30 seconds- they don’t have time to decode your intricately worded prose.Don’t Mess These UpMost Recent RoleRecruiters look at your current status to figure out why you might be looking for a new job. Were you fired from the last one? Laid off? Are you jumping ship after only a few months? Is this most recent position relevant to the one you’re applying for?Company RecognitionIt’s great to work for a company that garners immediate recognition- a recruiter will have an immediate frame of reference, and if they have a positive association with your company, you’ll have a leg up. Keep that in mind while applying and touting your accomplishments. Working for a   company that’s not well-known just means you’ll want to be more explicit about who they are and what they do, as well as your own role.Overall ExperienceDoes one position lead logically to another? Is there a sense of progress? Do the job titles make sense? Is your responsibility increasing from one gig to the next? If a recruiter wouldn’t automatically understand how you’ve made your way from one job to another, that’s something to explain in your cover letter.Keyword SearchYes, recruiters use Command+F to find words relevant to particular skills, programs, and experience- do your research (and read the job posting very closely) so you know what your industry is looking for and can make sure that’s represented on your resume.GapsIt is okay to have a gap- families happen, illnesses happen, grad school happens. Just make sure it’s explained somehow, in your cove r letter or as the reason you left the job before taking time away.Personal Web PresenceIf you list personal blogs, Twitter accounts, or any other social media sites, rest assured a recruiter will likely click through and see not only what you’re posting, but who you follow and who follows you.General LogisticsWhere do you live and where are you eligible to work? Make it clear on your resume- and if you know you’re a geographical long shot, figure out how to indicate your willingness to relocate.Overall OrganizationThe no-brainer basics: grammar, spelling, clarity, readability.What Doesn’t  Really MatterEducationOuch, cry all of us with any kind of student loan debt. Benjamin is mostly referring to mid-level or senior hires. By that time, she prioritizes experience over education, with a few exceptions for MBAs or particularly prestigious institutions.Fancy FormattingRemember that even companies with online submission forms convert your resume to plain text fo r quick and easy reading. Consider submitting a plain text version along with the PDF if it’s an option- a recruiter will know there’s probably an aesthetically pleasing version waiting for them if they call you in to meet with a hiring manager.Uncomfortably Personal DetailsNo photos, no references to anything that a recruiter legally can’t ask about (spouse, kids, disability, health issues, etc). If they want to google you, they will.Cover LettersWell this is heartbreaking- I work so hard on my cover letters! I use them to explain my job-hopping early 20s! So, I wouldn’t take this for granted at most entry level positions; make sure your letter is immaculate if it’s requested, and don’t send one if they don’t ask.What Not To DoUse Word templates: Yuck. They are boring and basic and you can do better!Write in the first person: It’s implied that everything on your resume has to do with you. â€Å"Responsibilities included coord inating office networking events† works just fine without â€Å"My† in front of it.Include a ridiculous number of pages: Curate your experience to apply only to the job you’re applying for, and get it down to two pages max.Mix up POV and tense: Pick one and stick to it!Include resume objectivesMail or hand deliver paper copiesSend resumes straight to the CEOExaggerateBut Feel Free to Do These!And just to make it that much harder to figure out the right thing to do, here’re some features Benjamin wishes she could see more of:Insert personalityHave one! Don’t let your resume sound like it was generated by an SEO robot- feel free to include a (tasteful, thoughtful, relevant) joke, a personal preference, or an engaging detail. Make it worth your recruiter’s while to close-read your work!Include URLs for other presencesYour mileage may vary. If you tend to showcase interesting industry-related articles and news items publicly, maybe share your Fac ebook or tumblr. If you use the internet to blow off steam, maybe lock your profiles down during the job search.Share personal projectsWhat else are you working on? In your free time, what do you do or make or go out of your way to see? Even if you decide not to include this on your resume, have an anecdote or two ready for an interview!Use different colors and typography: Be deliberate and thoughtful about your choices, and keep it tasteful. Remember recruiters are seeing dozens of these- be appealing without being appalling.

Cross Cultural Health Perspectives Personal Statement

Cross Cultural Health Perspectives - Personal Statement Example Q1- Even "objectively measured clinical outcomes" may be erroneous when there is a lack of cross-cultural understanding. Apart from attitudinal differences between the patient and the care provider leading to miscommunication, there could be 'real' differences like some conditions/immunities being more prevalent among some groups, and even differing responses to medication. Q 4 - Even a "conscientious" care-provider cannot eliminate all prejudice or false assumptions about other groups of people, as many of these may be deeply rooted-in his/her subconscious. Being aware of this enables me to question my assumptions, accept that I am prone to error, and retain a degree of flexibility to correct myself when the evidence points out that I may have culturally stereotyped a patient at any time. Q 5- When noting medical history where a communication barrier exists, yes or no answers are least useful (response a). It is possible that when the questions are asked, some important aspect may be ignored. My mistake in this question happened due to inattention. I gave the response for the 'most useful', instead for 'least useful'. The lesson for my in this is that I should be paying more attention, in general, when I do a task-whether reading something or listening to a patient. Lesson taken! Q 6 - The least useful technique when tackling a patient's beliefs about treatment is to tell the patient that his/her belief is false, even if this is done in a gentle manner (resp b), because beliefs could be deeply entrenched. I was unable to identify this, while doing the quiz. Q 13- Japanese men, after migration to the US, retain a lower susceptibility to coronary heart disease than the general population (resp b)-a fact which I now know. Facts like these, based on research studies, can be accessed by more study and reading. Q15 - Immigrants who go to traditional healers do not keep away from Western medicine (resp b-false) Q 17- A smile could express worry or dis-satisfaction in some cultures. (resp a) It is useful to know this, a fact which seems strange at first, but so necessary for a care provider to know so that diagnosis is correctly done. All the other responses (16 in number, as earlier mentioned) were correct. In order to maintain cultural competence-both to avoid the deficiencies as revealed in my quiz answers, as well as to strengthen my correct perceptions-I have to keep working at developing more empathy, enhance listening skills, retain openness of mind, and improve my information base by keeping myself updated about various research studies regarding health indicators of different cultural groups. Works Cited Hunt, Linda Beyond Cultural Competence in The Park Ridge Centre for Health, Faith and Ethics, , retrieved 30th Nov, 2008 The Provider's Guide to Quality and Culture , retrieved 30th

School Administration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

School Administration - Essay Example As a result, reluctance of potential administrators (Rayfield), and the turnover rate of administrators continue to rise (Senge et. al 88). Nevertheless, the slim chance to beam in and at success motivates site administrators to persevere through battles and wars waged on them by stakeholders to whom they offer their public service. Due to inexperience, aspiring administrators lack the skill to realistically anticipate and effectively cope with the pressing responsibilities often experienced in lead administration. Aspiring administrators should seek the help of others to cope as some of their ideal expectations are adjusted by realistic occurrences. According to Dr. Lorraine Monroe, leadership is the key determinant of a great school (12). Candidates for the leading position take great notice of the publicity that comes along with the leading position but slightly recognize the magnitude of responsibility. As the chief official of a designated school site, the administrator bears the responsibility of all that happens within the building. According to elementary principal Kimsherion Reid, "No matter what goes on in the building, it reflects on you" (Delisio). Thus, the site administrator has the challenge of making sure all aspects of the school exist peacefully and productively. Lorraine Monroe states: "The real leader is the servant of the people she leads" (126). Administrative candidates may not realize that an administrator does not occupy the throne of a dictator. Rather, he or she must learn from and oftentimes accommodate stakeholders, others who take part in the educational process. Stakeholders include parents, students, teachers, custodians, as well as other members of the community. A content group of stakeholders lessens administrators' worries. Thus, administrators and aspiring administrators alike must learn to find a comfortable medium that will appease most who are involved in issues that arise. One frequent issue school administrators encounter is adequately and effectively handling student discipline. In Loco Parentis grants educators the right to stand in place of parents while children are in the school's jurisdiction. As they temporarily stand in place of the parent, educators are liable for students' safety and "have the authority to direct the pupil and to punish for infractions, much as a parent would" (Reutter 763). Specifically designed to protect the best interest of all students, In Loco Parentis grants educators authority to exercise control. However, some inexperienced administrators are surprised to find that the granted authority is often challenged resulting in the necessity for additional accommodations. Differences in values and opinions often sabotage efforts to accommodate everyone in a satisfactorily manner. For example, administrators and parents may agree to work for the students' best interest. What happens, however, when the administrator and parent disagree on the consequence assigned for the child's misbehavior What is the solution when the parent contends that his or her child's behavior is not misbehavior at all In such a situation, how can the administrator appropriately serve and appease the student and parent while fulfilling his or her duty as one who maintains order in the school Administrators are expected to be diplomatic chief officials. With the responsibility of diffusing problems prior to their getting out of hand, administrators must balance and compromise without totally

Intellectual and Cognitive Development Essay Example for Free

Intellectual and Cognitive Development Essay Intellectual and Cognitive Development Explain the sequence and rate of development Age Range 0-3 Months Babies at this age are learning a lot about their parents they are beginning to recognise the sound of their voices, especially Mums voice and smell, they may stop crying when Mums voice is heard. 3-6 Months Objects and toys become very interesting to babies at this time. Toys are explored with fingers and mouth. They are very alert. 6-9 Months Around this time babies will cry when their primary carer leaves the room but then around 8 or 9 moths learn that people and objects do not disappear but continue to exist even when they are out of sight. 1-2 Years At this time in their life they recognise routines throughout the day, babies may get excited when they see a familiar face or toy or when a bib is put on for feeding. They enjoy toys that they put things in to containers and out again, they may pull off hats and socks repeatedly. They also respond well to brothers and sisters. 2-4 Years Children begin to know what they like and play with the same games over and over again. They like pretend play games like drinking from an empty cup or dressing up in clothes of their heros. 4-7 Years This is the age they gain load of confidence and co-ordination. They start school and learn to read, write and count they also do simple maths. -12 Years By this age children are well co-ordinated, the way children think and reason is reflected in their play, they are much more organised and focused. 12-16 Years Children of this age have learnt how to solve problems and have an understanding of reasoning. 16-19 Years Decisions have to be made at this tae of ones life, if to stay in education or to find a job. If leaving your familiar environment you have to embrace new settings, rules and people.

Dating: Bars, Clubs, And Personal Advertisements :: essays research papers

Dating: Bars, Clubs, and Personal Advertisements Single adults partake of many activities to seek dates and find mates. Many use advertisements in local newspapers to attract possible candidates for a relationship. Others go to single's clubs and bars to find their potential soul mate. The type of activities people choose are dependent on the person's self- esteem and self-confidence. The information for this research was obtained from the article â€Å"Self Esteem of Persons Seeking Dates Via Bars, Singles Clubs, and Personal Advertisements.† The article was written by Paul Yelsma and Paul L. Wienir. It appears in â€Å"Sociological Spectrum† for January - March 1996.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The research method used in this article was a questionnaire. These questionnaires were sent to people who advertised in the local paper. Single's club participants were presented questionnaires and asked to complete them at one of the two clubs in the same geographic region. Those who attended bars were either contacted directly or given questionnaires. The questionnaires were completed by 152 subjects: 40 from ads; 62 attended singles clubs, and 50 frequented bars. (Yelsma and Weinir, p. 35)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What effect does self esteem have in a person's decision on what type of method to use to find their possible companion? It is shown that people with lower self-esteems tend to choose personal advertisements, while people with higher self esteems tend to lean towards the bar scene. Others with a mediocre self-esteem seem to go towards the clubs scene. According to Josephs, Larrick, Steele, and Nisbett, (1992, p. 27) â€Å"The higher one's self esteem, the less one has to fear from threats to the self, and individuals with higher levels of self-esteem should be less affected by the threats to the self.† This means that the higher ones self esteem is, the more they will not be afraid to show themselves in public. Those with the low self-esteems, will hide behind the words of a personal advertisement, while those with higher self-esteems will be open enough to attempt to meet people on a personal basis.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the reasons people are reluctant to use personal ads are because of their odd beginnings. In the early days of personal ads, they were used by those seeking homosexual relationships, and for â€Å"immoral actions.† However, since then, the have become much popular. People from all walks of life use personal ads to attract others with similar likes and dislikes. In a personal advertisement, the person making the ad gets the advantage of never actually meeting the person before first contact. This allows them to have a veil of secrecy around them. For those with low self-esteem, this allows them to hide

Investigating Psychology Classic Studies Research Essay

Examine and assess the ways in which the classic studies discussed in Chapters 2, 4 and 8 of Investigating Psychology influenced subsequent psychological research. Certain psychological studies are termed ‘classics’ as they’ve become renowned for the influence or contribution that they’ve made to particular areas of psychology. This essay looks in detail at such studies, carried out by Milgram, Skinner and Broadbent, with a view to assessing the value of their influences on subsequent psychological research. This essay aims to demonstrate how these studies have largely been influential and valuable as a result of their strengths, but will also demonstrate that a weakness within the structure of a study can also be influential. B.F. Skinner is considered to be one of the most influential psychologists of the twentieth century (Brace and Byford, 2012). His work on behaviour shaping and theory of operant conditioning is still influential today. Skinner believed that behaviour could be influenced through manipulation such as reinforcement, and controversially believed that thought processes and free will play no part in d etermining behaviour. To test his theories he experimented with rats and pigeons. He created the ‘Skinner box’ which meant that the animals’ behaviour could scientifically and objectively be measured. This was an influential and important development that enabled future studies to be carried out under tight controls. Skinner argued that learning through reinforcement could be successfully extended to humans (Toates, 2012). Subsequent research studies have been carried out testing the sustained influence of Skinners theory of reinforcement, and supporting its validity and value. Studies by Swinson and Harrop, 2005 (cited in Toates, 2012) support that challenging behaviour in the classroom can be reduced using positive reinforcement. E.g. a child receives praise for desired behaviours, rather than receiving attention for undesirable behaviour. Therefore Skinner’s classical study has had a positive influence in relation to behaviour in education. Furthermore there is evidence from therapeutic settings (Flora 2004), (cited in Toates, 2012) including mental hospitals, showing that children and adults have been successfully modified for psychological issues such as self-harming, using therapies derived from Skinner’s studies. These techniques of reinforcement are being used today in many hospitals, schools and prisons. (Toates, 2012). However, aspects of Skinner’s theory of behaviourism, displayed weaknesses  and as such is not favoured in psychology today. Most psychologists retain the view that free will is instrumental to behaviour and how we learn, believing that our ability to make choices is influenced by factors other than operant conditioning alone. This was a view rejected by Skinner (Toates, 2012). This aspect of behaviourism has had little influence on subsequent research other than to refute it. Nevertheless Skinners work on operant conditioning remains influential, and is used by many professionals (Cherry, 2013). Furthermore, the work of David Broadbent has been greatly influential and valuable, the evidence of which continues to be seen in research today. Broadbent’s work has contributed to our understanding of attention. He invented the modern study of attention, introducing and making popular the ‘information-processing’ approach which launched the cognitive revolution. This approach was the first testable model of attention and Broadbent was keen that others carried out experiments to test it (Edgar and Edgar 2012). He believed that psychological theory should come from considering practical problems, and with this approach he bridged the gap between the laboratory and the real-world (Berry, 2002, p.403). Broadbent’s model displayed that we have limited capacity to how much information we can process at one time, and as such this affects our abilities to multi-task etc. (Edgar and Edgar, 2012). This has implications on everyday tasks such as driving. This proved extremely valuable information with regards to researching cognitive abilities in humans, and is still used in cognitive psychology today. Colin Cherry was a contemporary of Broadbent’s, whose research extended that of Broadbent’s to explore the role of ‘meaning’ in attention. Cherry’s (1953) findings showed that meaning does play a role in information-processing and as a consequence Broadbent’s original model needed to be modified in a way that recognised memory, experience and expectations can influence attention. These findings generated refinements to the model, raised further specific questions and generated hypothesis which have been, and continue to be tested by carefully designed experiments. This process is known as the â€Å"Cycle of Enquiry†. Broadbent’s research regarding attention and multi-tasking influenced Ivan Brown et al. (1960), (cited in Edgar and Edgar, 2012) to conduct studies into the effects on driving whilst using a mobile ‘phone. This study is an excellent example and evidence of hypothesis testing. There were certain  elements applied to the experiment to ensure a valid test of the hypothesis: Performance or ‘dependent variables’ were measured by speed/accuracy; the two ‘conditions’ were driving without using a ‘phone, and driving the same route whilst answering questions using a ‘phone. The ‘conditions’ arose from manipulating the ‘independent’ variable’ – the use of a ‘phone or not. Other variables were controlled to ensure that the only influence on the result of the study was the variable being measured. The finding of the experiment supported Broadbent’s views regarding attention and multi-tasking. The value that the ‘cycle of enquiry’ adds to subsequent psychological research is immeasurable, as it ensures research is constantly open to re-evaluation. Over time and with the advent of technology, re search performed by Broadbent has influenced studies using fMRI which have been able to ‘see’ how attention is depicted in brain activity. Findings were consistent with Broadbent’s theory of limited capacity (Sabine Kastner et. al. (1998) cited in Edgar and Edgar 2012). Broadbent’s methodical approach to experimental research and theory development were the origins of subsequent psychological research. As such he was instrumental in the development of cognitive psychology. (Edgar and Edgar 2012). Equally influential on psychological research is Milgram’s studies into obedience from authorities’ (1961), which was provoked by the atrocities of the Second World War. The studies investigated whether volunteers would administer potential lethal electrical shocks to another human because they were told to by an ‘authoritative figure’. The findings were alarming in that most people were willing to administer the shocks on the instruction of ‘someone in authority.’ It was these findings that provoked much debate and influenced attempts at replications of the original study. Weaknesses of the study included it being conducted in a single geographical area, using same gender participants, and not being carried out in a real-world environment. In order to address the issue of gender, Milgram himself replicated his study using only females, with the resu lts showing that women were just as likely as men to give the shocks (Banyard, 2012). With regards to culture and geography, Milgram’s study was replicated in many countries and the results were analysed by Peter Smith and Michael Bond (1993), (cited in Banyard, 2012). The findings were that varying degrees of obedience were displayed by different cultures. To test the theory in a real-world  environment, a replication was carried out in a work environment by Charles Hofling et.al. (1996), (cited in Banyard, 2012) to see if nurses would give patients an overdose of a drug on the instruction of a telephone call from a Doctor. The drugs were ‘dummies’ and the Doctor a fake. The request broke hospital protocol but alarmingly a very high percentage of nurses followed the Doctors instruction. However, it’s not just the findings regarding human behaviour that have been greatly influential, but a significant weakness of the study has been equally so. The first code of ethics, The Nuremberg Code, was devised in 1946 as a response to the atrocities carried out during the Second World War. Many people disapproved of Milgram’s obedience studies as they felt that it was ethically wrong. One such psychologist was Diana Baumrind who felt Milgram had broken certain aspects of the code of ethics (Banyard, 2012). She believe d that the participants hadn’t been treated properly as their welfare had been compromised due to the extreme stress they had encountered; they weren’t able to give informed consent; the emotional cost to the participants wasn’t worth the benefit of the study, and participants weren’t able to exercise their right to withdraw. Furthermore, she argued that Milgram had harmed the public image of psychology. The value of this to subsequent research is that the obedience study demonstrated why ethics is so important in psychology, and highlighted the need for strict guidelines in research (Banyard, 2012). These very concerns regarding ethics would make it difficult to replicate the original study today. However, the development of technology has enabled replications of the study to be carried out in a virtual environment (Mel Slater et.al 2006, cited in Banyard 2012). The findings were similar to that of the original study. However you measure Milgram’s impact, whether it’s in terms of obedience, ethics or human behaviour, he remains one of the most influential Social Psychologists of our time. (Banyard, 2012). To conclude, having looked in detail at the classic studies, the evidence supplied clearly demonstrates that they’ve had a significant and valuable influence on subsequent psychological research. The influence that they’ve had and the high value to research are evident throughout history. However, it is also important to note that these studies do also display weaknesses; there are elements which have been challenged, offer no value, and have had no significant influence on subsequent research. This is however, over  shadowed by the body of evidence presented that outline the many ways in which the classical studies have influenced subsequent psychological research and continue to do so. (1553 words). References: Banyard, P. (2012) ‘Just Following Orders?’ in Brace, N. and Byford, J. (eds) Investigating Psychology, Oxford, Oxford University press/Milton Keynes, The Open University. Berry, D. (2012) The Psychologist, vol.15, no.8 22 August [Online]. Available at www.thepsychologist.org.uk/archive/archive_home.cfm/volumeID_15-edition_83-ArticleID_437-getfile-getPDF/thepsychologist/aug02berry.pdf) (Accessed 14 August 2013) Brace, N. and Byford, J. (eds) Investigating Psychology, Oxford, Oxford University press/Milton Keynes, The Open University. Cherry, K. (2013) http://psychology.about.com/od/profileofmajorthinkers/p/bio_skinner.htm (Accessed 14 August 2013) Edgar, H. and Edgar, G. (2012) ‘Paying Attention’ in Brace, N. and Byford, J. (eds) Investigating Psychology, Oxford, Oxford University press/Milton Keynes, The Open University. Toates, F. (2012. ‘Changing Behaviour’ in Brace, N. and Byford, J. (eds) Investigating Psychology, Oxford, Oxford University press/Milton Keynes, The Open University.